What is the difference between microbiology and immunology

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The symptoms are reddish macules appearing on the face and spreading to the trunk and extremities. Vaccine of measles, mumps, and rubella MMR has almost eliminated the measles. Rubella German measles is caused by Rubella virus. The disease has symptoms like measles but is mild and less extensive which usually disappears in 3 days.

Small pox : Caused by variola virus. The effective vaccination has almost eradicated the disease. The symptoms are confluent pustules on the skin; the later stage may affect internal organs. Chicken pox : Results from infection by varicella zoster virus. The symptoms are vesicles present on the face, throat, and lower back.

The therapy is virostatic drugs. Shingles is caused by herpes zoster. The symptoms are appearance of vesicles on one side of the waist, face or scalp, or upper chest. Herpes simplex virus type I infection results in cold sores in which vesicles around the mouth are visible. Ringworm also known as tinea results from infection of Microsporum , Trichophyton , or Epidermophyton species. The symptoms are skin lesions of varied appearance. The treatment is antibiotic griseofulvin or topical applications of miconazole or clotrimazole.

Candidiasis : Results from Candida albicans which usually infects the mucous membrane or moist areas of the skin. The topical application of miconazole and clotrimazole is effective. The other common parasitic infections are scabies Sarcoptes scabiei mite. Symptoms are appearance of papules and the treatment is gamma benzene hexachloride or permethrin. Diseases of the respiratory system are often manifested by symptoms of dyspnea shortness of breath , or cough, or chest pain, or abnormality on a chest radiograph.

As the symptoms often overlap in various respiratory diseases, the differential diagnosis is required from the history, physical examination, pulmonary function testing, etc.

The most abundant microflora of the respiratory tract suppresses the growth of the pathogenic bacteria in the upper respiratory tract. There are a variety of symptoms because of infections of various regions of the respiratory system [ 5 ]. Pharyngitis : Inflammation of the mucous membranes of the throat or sore throat. Sinuses : Nasal sinuses are cavities in certain cranial bones that open into the nasal cavity lined with a continuous mucous membrane. Infection of the sinus leads to inflamed mucous membrane resulting in heavy nasal discharge, a condition called sinusitis.

Blockage of the sinus leaves to internal presence causing pain or sinus headache. This is caused due to Streptococcus pyogenes group A beta hemolytic bacteria. The symptoms of the disease are inflammation of the mucous membrane along with fever.

Lymph nodes located in the neck are enlarged and tender. The disease is diagnosed by indirect agglutination and treated by penicillin. Caused by Corynebacterium diphtheriae. Exotoxin is the cause of symptoms which inhibits translation resulting in tissue and organ damage.

The antitoxin therapy and antibiotics are used to cure the disease. This is caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae , Haemophilus influenzae , Moraxella catarrhalis , Streptococcus pyogenes , and Staphylococcus aureus.

In this ear, ache occurs after nose and throat infections. Pus accumulation causes pressure on the eardrum. Treatment is amoxicillin broad-spectrum penicillin. Results from infection of different viruses. Symptoms include sneezing, nasal secretions, and congestion. Caused by Bordetella pertussis. The disease symptoms are because of congestion of the trachea and bronchi due to accumulation of mucous.

The bacteria produce toxins and destroy the ciliated cells of the trachea. Vaccination is very effective in reducing the incidences of the disease. The causative agent for tuberculosis TB is Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The bacteria contain lots of lipids which aids in their resistance to drying and antimicrobial agents. These lesions along with macrophages might calcify and appear clearly on X-ray films. Infection progresses when lesion ruptures releasing bacteria into the lung airways, lymphatics, and cardiovascular system leading to military tuberculosis.

In this, the patient suffers from weight loss, cough sometimes with blood, and loss of appetite. Initially effective drug for TB was streptomycin. Currently, the patient is administered with multiple drugs as isoniazid, rifampin, and pyrazinamide. Noncompliance to medication during treatment in part is responsible for emergence of multiple drug-resistant strains which are posing serious problem. The Bacillus Calmette—Guerin BCG; frequent in humans which affects the bones or lymphatics is being widely used in the world as vaccine.

Caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae ; apart from this, pneumonia may also be caused by fungi, protozoa, viruses, as well as other bacteria and is known as atypical pneumonia. Pneumonia is named after the respiratory site of the infection:.

Disease caused by S. The capsules form the basis of serological differentiation of pneumococci into 90 serotypes. The symptoms include high fever, breathing difficulty, and chest pain. Effective drugs are penicillin and fluoroquinolones. Subunit vaccine from purified capsular material of the 23 types of pneumococci has been developed [ 5 ]. The disease is prevalent in infants and infection of the bronchial epidermis occurs during the winter and early spring.

The name is derived from syncytium cell fusion formation in cell culture. For severe symptoms the antiviral drug ribavirin is administered. The disease is characterized by chills, fever, headache, and muscular aches. Recovery occurs fast and cold-like symptoms appear. Influenza virus has eight separate RNA segments with inner protein and an outer lipid bilayer. Two types of projections embedded in the lipid bilayer are hemagglutinin H and neuraminidase N spikes.

H spikes about on virion allow the virus to recognize and attach to cells of the body; this causes agglutination of RBCs. N spikes about per virus help the virus to separate from infected cells after intracellular reproduction. Antibodies against H spikes are more important in the resistance of body to the disease.

Viral strains are identified by variation in H and N antigens. The different numbers show substantial alteration in the protein composition of spikes which are referred as antigenic shifts, and they escape from the previous immunity developed in the human body. High mutation rates are characteristic of RNA viruses. The major cause of antigenic shifts is genetic recombination which might occur in infections involving more than one strain and mixing of RNA from strains of animals swine, horses, and birds with RNA of human strains.

Swines may be infected with both human and fowl influenza, and likely animals involved in shifts therefore are referred as mixing vessels [ 5 ].

Minor variation in antigenic makeup is called antigenic drift which might reflect alteration of only single amino acid which is probably due to selective pressure of antibody. The effect of antigenic drift results in low efficacy of vaccine against a particular spike H2 after 10 years in H2 only.

Influenza viruses are also classified according to antigens of their protein coat viz. A-type cause major pandemics; B viruses are geographically limited and cause mild infections. These are the reasons that it is not possible to develop an effective vaccine for influenza that can give long-term immunity.

Epidemics of the flu are due to a new strain of virus which quickly propagates through population. The cause of death is not influenza virus but often it is secondary bacterial infections H. In — more than 20 million people died in major pandemic of influenza with highest mortality rates in young adults, often dying within a few hours. The infection is restricted to the upper respiratory system but, due to some changes in virulence, results in invasion of the lungs causing viral pneumonia.

The antiviral drugs are amantadine and rimantadine which significantly reduce the symptoms of A-type virus.

Inhibitors of neuraminidase-2 zanamivir Relenza which can be inhaled and oseltamivir phosphate Tamiflu are administered orally. Fungal diseases: The fungal diseases of the respiratory system are histoplasmosis inhalation of airborne conidia , coccidioidomycosis inhalation of airborne arthrospores , and Pneumocystis pneumonia Pneumocystis jirovecii causes inflammation and fluid buildup in lungs. The nervous system consists of the central nervous system CNS with the brain and spinal cord and the peripheral nervous system consisting of all the nerves that branch off from the brain and spinal cord.

These nerves are the lines which send and receive the signal from the body to the brain sensory and from the brain to the body motor and thus coordinated the body. The brain and spinal cord are protected by three continuous membranes called meninges outermost duramater, central arachnoid mater, and innermost pia mater. Between the inner and middle layer is a space called subarachnoid space in which human adults have — ml of cerebrospinal fluid CSF.

The blood—brain barrier protects the brain by restricting components of the blood to enter the brain, but some selective substances pass through certain capillaries; lipid soluble molecules can gain entry. Though the CNS has high level of protection, still certain microorganism can gain entry because of trauma, nerve supply, blood, and lymphatics. The inflammation then occurs in the meninges meningitis or brain encephalitis [ 5 ].

Meningitis : Meningitis may be caused by different types of pathogens including viruses, bacteria, and fungi. They possess capsule that protects them from phagocytosis, and they rapidly multiply in blood and afterward enter the cerebrospinal fluid. The symptoms are fever, headache, and stiffness in the neck followed by nausea and vomiting.

The diseases may progress due to the release of endotoxins of the gram-negative pathogens or the release of cell wall components peptidoglycans and teichoic acids of gram-positive bacteria. Quick treatment is required with broad-spectrum third-generation cephalosporins. Tetanus : The disease is caused by an obligatory anaerobic, endosperm-forming, gram-positive Clostridium tetani.

The symptoms are due to potent neurotoxin, tetanospasmin, which affects relaxation of muscles causing muscle spasms. The jaw muscles are the early target which prevents the mouth from opening known as lockjaw [ 5 ]. Spasms in the back muscle cause the head and heel to bow backward opisthotonos.

Death results from spasms of respiratory muscles. Effective vaccination has reduced the incidences. Both attenuated and subunit tetanus toxoids vaccines are available:. Botulism : The causative agent is anaerobic, endospore-forming gram-positive Clostridium botulinum.

Exotoxin produced the most potent of all natural toxins which blocks the release of acetylcholines. The patient undergoes a progressively flaccid paralysis for 1—10 days and may die from respiratory and cardiac failure.

Botulism toxin is used for cosmetics as Botox. Leprosy : Due to infection of Mycobacterium leprae in the peripheral nervous system. The organism was isolated by Gerhard A. It usually invades cells of the peripheral nervous system. Sulfone drugs as dapsone and other drugs as rifampin and clofazimine are effective [ 5 ].

The mode of transmission is through contaminated water and affects the throat sore throat and small intestine. The virus enters the lymph nodes and then blood and afterward penetrates the central nervous system.

The virus invades and destroys motor nerve cells of the upper spinal cord; sometimes, death can result from respiratory failure.

There are three different serotypes of virus. The Salk vaccine uses inactivated polio virus, whereas Sabin is oral polio which is attenuated.

The use of vaccination has almost eradicated polio from the population. Rabies : Latin, rage or madness The disease is caused by rabies virus which is transmitted to humans by bite of infected animals dogs, cats, bats, foxes, etc. The virus from skeletal muscles and connective tissue moves to CNS where it causes encephalitis.

The end stage of disease is due to excessive damage to the nerve cells of the brain and spinal cord. Passive vaccination is preferred as precaution [ 5 ].

Prions are abnormally folded proteins capable of inducing change in the shape of a normal protein. The disease has long incubation times with slow damage without any clinical symptoms. CJD often occurs in families. Sexually transmitted diseases STDs are prevalent diseases in different parts of the world and are posing major health burden. They not only spread dramatically from one person to another, but they are also passed on to the next generation either as congenital diseases or during child birth [ 1 — 3 ].

Thus, before starting these diseases, one crucial thing would be prevention. Prevention can be achieved by:. Detecting asymptomatic or symptomatic patients who are unlikely to seek treatment providing effective diagnosis and treatment of those with STDs. Others are chlamydial infections, genetic infections with HPV, and genital herpes which can spread very fast. They are more prevalent in individuals with frequent partner change or having multiple partners [ 1 — 3 ].

It is a bacterial disease with Treponema pallidum as the causative agent. The disease may be acquired by sexual intercourse or may be transmitted from mother to baby congenital syphilis or occasionally by blood transfusion or by nonsexual contacts.

Effective prevention and identification of syphilis in pregnant patients requires routine serology to be performed for all pregnant patients at the time of their first prenatal visit.

The pathogen causes erosion, ulcer, and vasculitis, and thereafter it may spread into regional lymph nodes. The syphilis can be divided into primary, secondary, latent, and tertiary stages. The lesion, chancre, appears as anogenital ulcer, which can also spread to extra-anogenital sites like the lip, tongue, and tonsils.

Secondary syphilis presents itself with rash affecting the palms and sole which later on becomes papules. Tertiary syphilis is manifested with gummatous, cardiovascular, and neurological involvement. Syphilis is diagnosed by identifying treponemes using dark field microscopy or by serological tests.

Treatment of choice is intramuscular benzathine penicillin [ 1 — 4 ]. Immunization is preventive and no other specific treatment for acute HBV exists. HAV is transmitted by household and sexual contacts. No treatment is available presently for acute HAV infection except supportive therapy. PID is caused by gonorrhea and chlamydia. During infection with PID, there are chances of its worsening due to invasion and infection with other infectious agents.

PID is presented with mild or nonspecific symptoms and sometimes goes asymptomatic. Missed diagnosis leads to damage to the reproductive tract. Oral antibiotics should be used for its management. Amoxicillin—clavulanic acid Augmentin along with doxycycline is effective.

Mild or asymptomatic genital herpes is also a common infection in many individuals. The infection can be passed on during delivery; thus cesarean section is recommended for infected females. For the treatment of genital herpes, two new antiviral drugs, famciclovir Famvir and valacyclovir Valtrex , are used in addition to established therapy with acyclovir Zovirax. The therapy may decrease the severity and duration of a genital herpes outbreak; treatment is effective if started within 24 h of infection.

Urethritis : Urethritis can be caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae , Chlamydia trachomatis , Mycoplasma genitalium , Ureaplasma urealyticum , Trichomonas vaginalis , herpes simplex virus HSV , etc. In men it produced urethral discharge or dysuria, and in women it causes internal dysuria without urinary urgency , pyuria, and absence of E.

Dysuria which is associated with vulvar herpes or vulvovaginal candidiasis is referred as external as it is painful when comes in contact with urine. Initial evaluation includes urethral discharge, gram staining, and test for N. Quinolines were given for treatment of gonorrhea as quinolines are a simple, safe, and effective treatment for gonococcal infections of any severity.

However, because of growing resistance of Neisseria gonorrhoeae , the guidelines suggest treatment with cefixime Suprax or ceftriaxone Rocephin. In the absence of gonococci in gram stain, urethritis treatment is directed toward nongonococcal urethritis NGU.

Mycoplasma genitalium is a new etiologic agent added to the list of bacteria that cause nongonococcal urethritis NGU in addition to Chlamydia trachomatis.

Azithromycin in a single dose or doxycycline was recommended for the treatment of NGU. Vulvovaginal candidiasis : Caused by Candida albicans with symptoms of vulval itching with or without irritation. It is accompanied by vaginal discharge which is clumped, scanty, adherent plaques with white color.

Topical and oral antifungal like miconazole, clotrimazole or fluconazole are given. Trichomonal vaginitis : The causative agent is Trichomonas vaginalis with symptoms of vulval itching with discharge which is homogeneous, white or yellow, profuse, and purulent and causes erythema of the vaginal and vulvar epithelium. Bacterial vaginosis : Also formerly known as nonspecific vaginitis caused by Gardnerella vaginosis , various anaerobic or non-cultured bacteria, and mycoplasmas.

The symptoms include moderate, white or gray, homogeneous, low viscosity, malodorous discharge. Treatment includes metronidazole and clindamycin.

Noncervical human papillomavirus : Major infections of genital human papillomavirus HPV infection occur annually with sexual transmission. In most patients with genital HPV, the infection is asymptomatic, subclinical, or unrecognized. The disease may be diagnosed by clinical assessment or biopsy of the lesion. The main goal of therapy for noncervical HPV infection is to treat symptomatic visible lesions by applying podofilox Condylox 0.

There is no evidence that treatment decreases infectivity or changes the natural course of HPV infections or the risk of development of cervical cancer. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome AIDS is one of the most important sexually transmitted disease.

Its epidemic was recognized long back, and despite major advances in prevention and treatment of the disease, the epidemic continues and has devastating effects on human society. The end stage of the disease is severe acquired immunodeficiency with lots of infection occurring in the HIV patients. The typical case of HIV disease then manifests itself as evidenced by certain malignancies and unusual microbial infections that often attack the lungs, intestines, skin, eyes, or the central nervous system.

HIV can be detected in body fluids like blood, semen, and vaginal secretions in the patients. HIV disease spreads mainly by unprotected sexual intercourse, sharing hypodermic needles, blood transfusion, or from mother to newborn. The prevention, detection, and treatment of STDs is very important.

The recommendations of CDC should be integrated in clinical practice to reduce the morbidity and mortality because of STDs. Cancer can be considered as the corruption of normal biological programs that control cell proliferation, metabolism, death, motility, stickiness and immune functions. Stojdl aims at harnessing the natural world of viruses to fight cancer. The immune system is an incredible weapon against tumors and yet, cancer is still one of the leading causes of death.

It is of extreme importance to have a more detailed knowledge of the complex interactions between immune cells and cancer in order to design more tailored and effective immunotherapies.

Currently, his lab is focusing on: 1. The function of these cells in the blood and liver are being evaluated. Both host and viral factors that contribute to the bulk of malfunctioning cells are being studied.

From there, her laboratory is also exploring the therapeutic potential of soluble cytokine receptors in the prevention and treatment of diseases linked to HCV and HIV. Research in the Sun Laboratory is focused on improving our basic understanding of innate immune cell function in the context of infectious diseases. As sentinels of innate immunity, macrophages are special cells within the human body that function to protect us from invading pathogens and to regulate inflammation.

They are particularly interested in Myobacterium tuberculosis as the model intracellular pathogen for studying the dynamics of the host macrophage response to pathogen invasion. Please note that our agent is available Wednesday from pm to pm and Thursday and Friday from pm to pm. For urgent matters on Mondays and Tuesdays, call us at or come in person to RGN between am and pm and between pm and pm.

Contact the University. Jump to Main Content Jump to Navigation. Login uoZone Brightspace VirtuO. Search uOttawa. Search one of the following. Entire site Library Employee directory. Faculty of Medicine. Translational and Molecular Medicine. Microbiology and Immunology. Alain Stintzi Our current research seeks to identify how human pathogens colonize the host gastrointestinal tract. Marc-Andre Langlois The bilateral spread of viruses between animals and humans, known as zoonotic infection, can have devastating consequences for human and animal health, global food supplies, and the economy.

Martin Pelchat Subviral RNA pathogens, like plant viroids and the human hepatitis delta virus are the smallest known virion. Seung-Hwan Lee My primary research goal is to understand host-pathogen interactions during clinically important virus infection, and to direct this knowledge toward therapeutic approaches with favorable consequences.